For F&B service..If asked to state all the 17 course please state the following....else follow the contemporary 13 course FCM
1.Hors d'oeuvre (appetizer)
2 Potage (soup)
3 Oeufs (eggs)
4.Farineaux (rice & pasta)
5.Poisson (fish)
6.Entrée (entry of 1st meat course)
7.Reléve (meat course)
8.Sorbet (flavoured water)
9.Rôti (roast)
10.Légumes (vegetables)
11.Salades (salad)
12.Buffet Froid (cold buffet)
13.Entremet de sûcre (sweets)
14.Savoureaux (savoury)
15.Fromage (cheese)
16.Desserts (fresh fruits & nuts)
17.Cafe (hot beverage..preferably Hot coffee in demi tasse or speciality coffes)



Tobacco
Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed, used as an organic pesticide and, in the form of nicotine tartrate, it is used in some medicines. In consumption it most commonly appears in the forms of smoking, chewing, snuffing, or dipping tobacco(Dipping tobaccos are a form of smokeless tobacco. Dip is occasionally referred to as "chew", and because of this, it is commonly confused with chewing tobacco, which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched' out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums), or Snus(Snus is steam-cured moist powder tobacco product that is not fermented, and does not induce salivation. It is consumed by placing it in the mouth against the gums for an extended period of time. It is a form of snuff that is used in a manner similar to American dipping tobacco, but does not require regular spitting.)
Tobacco has long been in use as an entheogen in the Americas. However, upon the arrival of Europeans in North America, it quickly became popularized as a trade item and as a recreational drug. This popularization led to the development of the southern economy of the United States until it gave way to cotton. Following the American Civil War, a change in demand and a change in labor force allowed for the development of the cigarette. This new product quickly led to the growth of tobacco companies, until the scientific controversy of the mid-1900s.
There are many species of tobacco, which are all encompassed by the plant genus Nicotiana. The word nicotiana (as well as nicotine) was named in honor of Jean Nicot, French ambassador to Portugal, who in 1559 sent it as a medicine to the court of Catherine de Medici.
Because of the addictive properties of nicotine, tolerance and dependence develop. Absorption quantity, frequency, and speed of tobacco consumption are believed to be directly related to biological strength of nicotine dependence, addiction, and tolerance. The usage of tobacco is an activity that is practiced by some 1.1 billion people, and up to 1/3 of the adult population. The World Health Organization reports it to be the leading preventable cause of death worldwide and estimates that it currently causes 5.4 million deaths per year. Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in developed countries, however they continue to rise in developing countries.
Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds are sown in cold frames or hotbeds to prevent attacks from insects, and then transplanted into the fields. Tobacco is an annual crop, which is usually harvested mechanically or by hand. After harvest, tobacco is stored for curing, which allows for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids. This allows for the agricultural product to take on properties that are usually attributed to the "smoothness" of the smoke. Following this, tobacco is packed into its various forms of consumption, which include smoking, chewing, sniffing, and so on.

Etymology
The Spanish word "tabaco" is thought to have its origin in Arawakan language, particularly, in the Taino language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to refer either to a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolome de Las Casas, 1552), or to the tabago, a kind of Y-shaped pipe for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo; with the leaves themselves being referred to as cohiba).
However, similar words in Spanish and Italian were commonly used from 1410 to define medicinal herbs, originating from the Arabic tabbaq, a word reportedly dating to the 9th century, as the name of various herbs.
History of tobacco

Tobacco has a long history from its usages in the early Americas. It became increasingly popular with the arrival of the Europeans by whom it was heavily traded. Following the industrial revolution, cigarettes became popularized, which fostered yet another unparalleled increase in growth. This remained so until the scientific revelations in the mid-1990s.
Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas by the time European settlers arrived and introduced the practice to Europe, where it became popular. At high doses, tobacco can become hallucinogenic; accordingly, Native Americans did not always use the drug recreationally. Instead, it was often consumed as an entheogen; among some tribes, this was done only by experienced shamans or medicine men. Eastern North American tribes would carry large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item and would often smoke it in pipes, either in defined ceremonies that were considered sacred, or to seal a bargain, and they would smoke it at such occasions in all stages of life, even in childhood. It was believed that tobacco was a gift from the Creator and that the exhaled tobacco smoke was capable of carrying one's thoughts and prayers to heaven.
Apart from smoking, tobacco had a number of uses as medicine. As a pain killer it was used for earache and toothache and occasionally as a poultice. Early missionaries often reported on the ecstatic state caused by tobacco. As its use spread into Western cultures, however, it was no longer used primarily for entheogenic or religious purposes, although religious use of tobacco is still common among many indigenous peoples, particularly in the Americas. Among the Cree and Ojibway of Canada and the north-central United States, it is offered to the Creator, with prayers, and is used in sweat lodges, pipe ceremonies, smudging, and is presented as a gift. A gift of tobacco is tradition when asking an Ojibway elder a question of a spiritual nature. Because of its sacred nature, tobacco abuse (thoughtlessly and addictively chain smoking) is seriously frowned upon by the Algonquian tribes of Canada, as it is believed that if one so abuses the plant, it will abuse that person in return, causing sickness. The proper and traditional native way of offering the smoke is said to involve directing it toward the four cardinal points (north, south, east, and west), rather than holding it deeply within the lungs for prolonged periods.
Rodrigo de Jerez was one of the Spanish crewmen who sailed to the Americas on the Santa Maria as part of Christopher Columbus's first voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492. He is credited with being the first European smoker.
Following the arrival of Europeans, tobacco became one of the primary products fueling colonization, and also became a driving factor in the incorporation of African slave labor.
In Western Europe
The Spanish introduced tobacco to Europeans in about 1518, and by 1523, Diego Columbus mentioned a tobacco merchant of Lisbon in his will, showing how quickly the traffic had sprung up. Nicot, French ambassador in Lisbon, sent samples to Paris in 1559. The French, Spanish, and Portuguese initially referred to the plant as the "sacred herb" because of its valuable medicinal properties.
In the United States
In 1609, John Rolfe arrived at the Jamestown Settlement in Virginia, and is credited as the first settler to have successfully raised tobacco (commonly referred to at that time as "brown gold") for commercial use. The tobacco raised in Virginia at that time, Nicotiana rustica,did not suit European tastes, but Rolfe raised a more popular variety, Nicotiana tabacum, from seeds brought with him from Bermuda. Tobacco was used as currency by the Virginia settlers for years, and Rolfe was able to make his fortune in farming it for export at Varina Farms Plantation. When he left for England with his wife, Pocahontas a daughter of Chief Powhatan, he had become wealthy. Returning to Jamestown, following Pocahontas' death in England, Rolfe continued in his efforts to improve the quality of commercial tobacco, and, by 1620, 40,000 pounds (18,000 kg) of tobacco were shipped to England. By the time John Rolfe died in 1622, Jamestown was thriving as a producer of tobacco, and its population had topped 4,000. Tobacco led to the importation of the colony's first black slaves in 1619. In the year 1616, 2,500 pounds (1,100 kg) of tobacco were produced in Jamestown, Virginia, quickly rising up to 119,000 pounds (54,000 kg) in 1620.
Industrialization
Following the American civil war, the tobacco industry struggled as it attempted to adapt. Not only did the labor force change from slavery to sharecropping, but a change in demand also occurred. As in Europe, there was a desire for not only snuff, pipes and cigars, but cigarettes appeared as well.
With a change in demand and a change in labor force, James Bonsack, an avid craftsman, in 1881 created a machine that revolutionized cigarette production. The machine chopped the tobacco, then dropped a certain amount of the tobacco into a long tube of paper, which the machine would then roll and push out the end where it would be sliced by the machine into individual cigarettes. This machine operated at thirteen times the speed of a human cigarette roller.
This caused an enormous growth in the tobacco industry which remained so until the scientific revelations discovered the health consequences of smoking in the mid-20th century.
Biology
Nicotine is the compound responsible for the addictive nature of Tobacco use. There are many species of tobacco, which are encompassed by the genus of herbs Nicotiana. It is part of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa and the South Pacific.
Many plants contain nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin, that is particularly harmful to insects. However, tobaccos contain a higher concentration of nicotine than most other plants. Unlike many other Solanaceae, they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals.
Types
There are a number of types of tobacco including, but are not limited to:
• Aromatic fire-cured, it is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States, it is grown in northern middle Tennessee, central Kentucky and in Virginia. Fire-cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee are used in some chewing tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends. Another fire-cured tobacco is Latakia, which is produced from oriental varieties of N. tabacum. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in Cyprus and Syria.
• Brightleaf tobacco, Brightleaf is commonly known as "Virginia tobacco", often regardless of the state in which they are planted. Prior to the American Civil War, most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. This type of tobacco was planted in fertile lowlands, used a robust variety of leaf, and was either fire cured or air cured. Most Canadian cigarettes are made from 100% pure Virginia tobacco.[14]
• Burley tobacco, is an air-cured tobacco used primarily for cigarette production. In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from palletized seeds placed in polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April.
• Cavendish is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a type. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced from any tobacco type, but is usually one of, or a blend of Kentucky, Virginia, and burley, and is most commonly used for pipe tobacco and cigars.
• Criollo tobacco is a type of tobacco, primarily used in the making of cigars. It was, by most accounts, one of the original Cuban tobaccos that emerged around the time of Columbus.
• Dokham, is a tobacco originally grown in Iran, mixed with leaves, bark, and herbs for smoking in a midwakh.
• Turkish tobacco, is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety (Nicotiana tabacum) that is grown in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and Macedonia. Originally grown in regions historically part of the Ottoman Empire, it is also known as "oriental". Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of Turkish tobacco; today, its main use is in blends of pipe and especially cigarette tobacco (a typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley and Turkish).
• Perique, a farmer called Pierre Chenet is credited with first turning this local tobacco into the Perique in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation. Considered the truffle of pipe tobaccos, it is used as a component in many blended pipe tobaccos, but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time, the freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but none is now sold for this purpose. It is typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength, and coolness to the blend.
• Shade tobacco, is cultivated in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Early Connecticut colonists acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking tobacco in pipes, and began cultivating the plant commercially, even though the Puritans referred to it as the "evil weed". The industry has weathered some major catastrophes, including a devastating hailstorm in 1929, and an epidemic of brown spot fungus in 2000, but is now in danger of disappearing altogether, given the value of the land to real estate speculators.
• White burley, in 1865, George Webb of Brown County, Ohio planted red burley seeds he had purchased, and found that a few of the seedlings had a whitish, sickly look. The air-cured leaf was found to be more mild than other types of tobacco.
• Wild tobacco, is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and parts of South America. Its botanical name is Nicotiana rustica.
• Y1 is a strain of tobacco cross-bred by Brown & Williamson in the 1970s to obtain an unusually high nicotine content. In the 1990s, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) used it as evidence that tobacco companies were intentionally Snuff is a generic term for fine-ground smokeless tobacco products. Originally the term referred only to dry snuff, a fine tan dust popular mainly in the eighteenth century. Snuff powder originated in the UK town of Great Harwood, and was famously ground in the town's monument prior to local distribution and transport further up north to Scotland. There are two major varieties which include European (dry) and American (moist); although American snuff is often referred to as dipping tobacco.




Cigarette
A cigarette (French "small cigar", from cigar + -ette) is a small roll of finely-cut tobacco leaves wrapped in a cylinder of thin paper for smoking. The cigarette is ignited at one end and allowed to smoulder; its smoke is inhaled from the other end, which is held in the mouth. Most modern manufactured cigarettes are filtered and include reconstituted tobacco and other additives. Cigarettes are sometimes smoked with a cigarette holder.
The term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette but can apply to similar devices containing other herbs, such as cannabis. A cigarette is distinguished from a cigar by its smaller size, use of processed leaf, and paper wrapping, which is normally white, though other colors are occasionally available. Cigars are typically composed entirely of whole-leaf tobacco.
Rates of cigarette smoking vary widely. While rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in the developed world, they continue to rise in developing nations. Nicotine, the primary psychoactive chemical in cigarettes, has been shown to be addictive. Statistically each cigarette smoked shortens the users lifespan by 11 minutes. About half of cigarette smokers die of tobacco-related disease and lose on average 14 years of life. Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause birth defects, including mental and physical disabilities. Secondhand smoke from cigarettes has been shown to be injurious to bystanders, which has led to legislation that has banned their smoking in many workplaces and public areas.
Cigarettes are the most frequent source of fires in private homes, which has prompted the European Union to attempt to ban cigarettes that are not fire-safe by 2011.
Manufacturing


Diagram of a cigarette.
1. Filter made of 95% cellulose acetate.
2. Tipping paper to cover the filter.
3. Rolling paper to cover the tobacco.
4. Tobacco blend.
Commercially manufactured cigarettes are seemingly simple objects consisting mainly of a tobacco blend, paper, PVA glue to bond the outer layer of paper together, and often also a cellulose acetate–based filter. While the assembly of cigarettes is straightforward, much focus is given to the creation of each of the components, in particular the tobacco blend, which may contain over 600 ingredients, many of them flavourants for the tobacco. A key ingredient that makes cigarettes more addictive is the inclusion of reconstituted tobacco, which has additives to make nicotine more volatile as the cigarette burns.
Paper
The paper for holding the tobacco blend may vary in porosity to allow ventilation of the burning ember or contain materials that control the burning rate of the cigarette and stability of the produced ash. The papers used in tipping the cigarette (forming the mouthpiece) and surrounding the filter stabilise the mouthpiece from saliva and moderate the burning of the cigarette as well as the delivery of smoke with the presence of one or two
Tobacco blend
The process of blending, like the blending of scotch and cognac, gives the end product a consistent taste from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country that may change in flavour profile from year to year due to different environmental conditions.
Modern cigarettes produced after the 1950s, although composed mainly of shredded tobacco leaf, use a significant quantity of tobacco processing by-products in the blend. Each cigarette's tobacco blend is made mainly from the leaves of flue-cured brightleaf, burley tobacco, and oriental tobacco. These leaves are selected, processed, and aged prior to blending and filling. The processing of brightleaf and burley tobaccos for tobacco leaf "strips" produces several by-products such as leaf stems, tobacco dust, and tobacco leaf pieces ("small laminate"). To improve the economics of producing cigarettes, these by-products are processed separately into forms where they can then be possibly added back into the cigarette blend without an apparent or marked change in the cigarette's quality.
Cigarette butt
The common name for the remains of a cigarette after smoking is a "(cigarette) butt". The butt typically comprises about 30% of the cigarette's original length. It consists of a tissue tube which holds a filter and some remains of tobacco mixed with ash. In extreme cases the filter is slightly burned. Cigarette butts are one source of tobacco for minors and low income people. The shape of a butt hinges on the manner of stubbing out. The intensely pressed butt possesses irregular shape at the end and wrinkled tissue. Cigarette butts may be a subject of studies over popularity of brands producing cigarettes.
Cigarette filters are made from cellulose acetate and are biodegradable, however depending on environmental conditions they can be resistant to degradation. Accordingly, the duration of the degradation process is cited as taking as little as 1 month to 3 years to as long as 10–15 years. One campaign group has suggested they never fully biodegrade. .
Selected cigarette brands
• 1st Class
• 305's
• 520
• Alpine
• Ashford
• Army Club
• Barclay
• Basic
• Belair
• Benson & Hedges
• Camel
• Capri
• Carlton
• Chesterfield
• Davidoff
• Dunhill
• Djarum
• Doral
• Eclipse
• Embassy Number One
• Eve
• Export A
• Fatima
• Gauloises
• GPC
• Kamel
• Kent
• Kool
• L&M
• Lucky Strike
• Marlboro
• Max
• Merit
• Misty
• Monarch
• More
• Natural American Spirit
• Now
• Newport
• Old Gold
• Pall Mall
• Parliament
• Salem
• Tareyton
• Tucson
• Vantage
• Viceroy
• Virginia Slims
• Winston
• Winfield


Smoking pipe (tobacco)
A smoking pipe for tobacco smoking typically consists of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece (the bit). Pipes can range from the very simple machine-made briar pipe to highly-prized handmade and artful implements created by renowned pipemakers which are often very expensive collector's items.
The bowls of tobacco pipes are commonly made of briar, meerschaum, corncob or clay. Less common are cherrywood, olivewood, maple, mesquite, and oak. Generally a dense-grained wood is ideal. Minerals such as catlinite and soapstone have also been used. Pipe bowls of all these materials are sometimes carved with a great deal of artistry.
Unusual, but still noteworthy pipe bowl materials include gourds, as in the famous calabash pipe, and pyrolytic graphite. Metal and glass are uncommon materials for tobacco pipes, but are common for pipes intended for other substances.
The stem needs a long channel of constant position and diameter running through it, and this is difficult to carve out of a pre-existing block. Because it is molded rather than carved, clay may make up the entire pipe or just the bowl, but most other materials have stems made separately and detachable. Stems and bits of tobacco pipes are usually made of moldable materials like vulcanite, lucite, Bakelite, and soft plastic. Less common are stems made of reeds, bamboo, or hollowed out pieces of wood. Expensive pipes once had stems made of amber, though this is rare now.
Tobaccos for smoking in pipes are often carefully treated and blended to achieve flavour nuances not available in other tobacco products. Many of these are blends using staple ingredients of variously cured Burley and Virginia tobaccos which are enhanced by spice tobaccos, among them many Oriental or Balkan varietals, Latakia (a fire-cured spice tobacco of Cypriot or Syrian origin), Perique (uniquely grown in St. James Parish, Louisiana) or blends of Virginia and Burley tobaccos of African, Indian, or South American origins. Traditionally, many U.S. blends are made of American Burley with sweeteners and flavorings added to create an "aromatic" flavor, whereas "English" blends are based on natural Virginia tobaccos enhanced with Oriental and other natural tobaccos. There is a growing tendency towards "natural" tobaccos which derive their aromas from artful blending with selected spice tobaccos only and careful, often historically-based, curing processes.
Materials and construction
The material and shape of a pipe has a profound influence upon the aesthetic of a smoke.
Briar


Tobacco pipe of briar wood
The majority of pipes sold today, whether hand made or machine made, are fashioned from briar ((French) bruyère). Briar is a particularly good wood for pipe making for a number of reasons. The first and most important is its natural resistance to fire. The second is its inherent ability to absorb moisture. The burl absorbs water in nature to supply the tree in the dry times and likewise will absorb the moisture that is a byproduct of combustion. Briar is cut from the root burl of the tree heath (Erica arborea), which is native to the rocky and sandy soils of the Mediterranean region. Briar burls are cut into two types of blocks; ebauchon and plateaux. Ebauchon is taken from the heart of the burl while plateaux is taken from the outer part of the burl. While both types of blocks can produce pipes of the highest quality, most artisan pipe makers prefer to use plateaux because of its superior graining. Some pipe makers use Brylon, a synthetic material which has properties similar to briar.
Meerschaum


A meerschaum pipe
Meerschaum (hydrated magnesium silicate), a mineral found in small shallow deposits mainly around the city of Eskişehir in central Turkey, is prized for the properties which allows it to be carved into finely detailed decorative and figural shapes. It has been used since the 17th century and, with clay pipes, represented the most common medium for pipes before the introduction of briar as the material of choice in the 19th century. The word "meerschaum" means "sea foam" in German, alluding to its natural white color and its surprisingly low weight. Meerschaum is a very porous mineral that absorbs elements of the tobacco during the smoking process, and gradually changes color to a golden brown. Old, well-smoked meerschaum pipes are prized for their distinctive coloring. In selecting a meerschaum pipe it is advisable to take assurances that the product is indeed carved from a block of meerschaum, and is not made from meerschaum dust collected after carving and mixed with a binder then pressed into a pipe shape. These products are not absorbent, do not color, and lack the smoking quality of the block carved pipe.
Clay


Clay Pipe
Clay in this case is almost always a very fine white clay. Low-quality "clay" pipes are actually made from porcelain slip poured into a mold. These are porous, of very low quality, and impart unwanted flavors to a smoke. Top-notch clays, on the other hand, are made in a labor-intensive process that requires beating all air out of the clay, hand-rolling each pipe before molding it, piercing with a fine wire, and careful firing. Traditionally, clay pipes are un-glazed. Clays burn "hot" in comparison to other types of pipes, so they are often difficult for most pipe-smokers to use. Their proponents claim that, unlike other materials, a well-made clay pipe gives a "pure" smoke, with no flavor addition from the pipe bowl. In addition to aficionados, reproductions of historical clay styles are used by some re-enactors. Clay pipes were once considered disposable items and the large quantities discarded in the past are often used as an aid in dating by industrial archaeologists.
Calabash


Calabash pipe with meerschaum bowl.
Calabash gourds (usually with meerschaum or porcelain bowls set inside them) have long made prized pipes, but they are labour-intensive and nowadays quite expensive. Because of this expense, pipes with bodies made of wood (usually mahogany) instead of gourd, but with the same classic shape, are sold as calabashes. Both wood and gourd pipes are functionally the same. They both have an air chamber beneath the bowl which serves to cool, dry, and mellow the smoke. There are also briar pipes being sold as calabashes. These typically do not have an air chamber and are named only because of their external shape.
.Corncob


Corncob pipe.
On the other end of the scale, "corncob" pipes made from corn cobs are cheap and effective, even if some regard them as inelegant. The cobs are first dried for two years. Then they are hollowed out to make a bowl shape. The bowls are dipped in a plaster-based mixture and varnished or lacquered on the outside. Shanks made from pine wood are then inserted into the bowls. The first and largest manufacturer of corncob pipes is Missouri Meerschaum, located in Washington, Missouri in the USA. Missouri Meerschaum has produced the pipes since 1869. General Douglas MacArthur, Mark Twain and George Lincoln Rockwell were perhaps the most famous smokers of this type of pipe, along with the cartoon characters Popeye and Frosty the Snowman.
Corncob pipes remain popular today because they are inexpensive and require no "break-in" period like briar pipes. For these two reasons, corncob pipes are often recommended as a "Beginners pipe." But, their enjoyment is by no means limited to beginners. Corncob pipes are equally valued by both learners and experienced smokers who simply desire a cool, clean smoke. Pipesmokers who wish to sample a wide variety of different tobaccos and blends also might keep a stock of corncobs on hand to permit them to try new flavors without "carryover" from an already-used pipe, or to keep a potentially bad tasting tobacco from adding its flavor to a more expensive or favored pipe.
Metal


An aluminum-stemmed pipe.
Metal is an uncommon material for making tobacco pipes, but they are not unknown. The most common form of this is a pipe with a stem and shank made of aluminum, which serves as a heat sink. Mouthpieces are made of vulcanite or lucite. The bowls are removable, though not interchangeable between manufacturers. They are made of varying materials to allow the smoker to try different characteristics or to dedicate particular bowls for particular tobaccos.
Other metal tobacco pipes include the Japanese kiseru and the Arabian midwakh. Hookahs also have metal stems, but fall into the general category of water pipes.
Hookahs
A hookah, ghelyan, or narghile, is a Middle Eastern water pipe that cools the smoke by filtering it through a water chamber. Often ice, milk, or fruit juice are added to the water. Traditionally, the tobacco is mixed with a sweetener, such as honey or molasses. Fruit flavors have also become popular. Modern hookah smokers, especially in the US, smoke "me'assel" "moassel" "molasses" or "shisha" all names for the same wet mixture of tobacco, molasses/honey, glycerine, and often, flavoring. This style of tobacco is smoked in a bowl with foil or a screen (metal or glass) on top of the bowl. More traditional tobaccos are "tombiek" (a dry unflavored tobacco, which the user moistens in water, squeezes out the extra liquid, and places coals directly on top) or "jarak" (more of a paste of tobacco with fruit to flavor the smoke).
Use
Smoking a pipe requires more apparatus and technique than cigarette or even cigar smoking. In addition to the pipe itself and matches or a lighter, smokers usually require a pipe tool for packing, adjusting, and emptying the tobacco in the bowl, and a regular supply of pipe cleaners.
Pipe tobacco
Pipe tobacco can be purchased in several forms, which vary both in flavour (leading to many blends and opportunities for smokers to blend their own tobaccos) and in the physical shape and size to which the tobacco has been reduced. Most tobaccos resemble cigarette tobacco, but are substantially more moist and are cut much more coarsely. Too finely cut tobacco does not allow enough air to flow through the pipe, and overly dry tobacco burns too quickly with little flavour. Pipe tobacco must be kept in a humidor or an airtight container to keep from drying out.
Some pipe tobaccos are cut into long narrow ribbons. Some are pressed into flat cakes which are cut up. Others are tightly wound into long ropes, then sliced into discs. Flake tobacco (sliced cakes or ropes) may be prepared in several ways. Generally it is rubbed out with the fingers and palms until it is loose enough to pack. It can also be crumbled or simply folded and stuffed into a pipe. Some people also prefer to dice up very coarse tobaccos before using them, making them easier to pack.
Packing
In the most common method of packing, tobacco is added to the bowl of the pipe in several batches, each one pressed down until the mixture has a uniform density that optimizes airflow (something that it is difficult to gauge without practice). This can be done with a finger or thumb, but if the tobacco needs to be repacked later, while it is burning, the tamper on a pipe tool is sometimes used. If it needs to be loosened, the reamer, or any similar long pin can be used. A traditional way of packing the pipe is to fill the bowl and then pack gently to about 1/3 full, fill again and pack slightly more firmly to about 2/3 full , and then pack more firmly still to the top.
An alternate packing technique called the Frank method involved lightly dropping tobacco in the pipe, after which a large plug is gingerly pushed into the bowl all at once.
Lighting
Matches, or even separately lit slivers of wood, are usually considered] preferable to lighters. Butane lighters especially made for pipes are made which permit a flame to be directed downward into the bowl. Naptha fueled conventional lighters are felt to impart a chemical taste to the smoke.
When matches are employed they are allowed to burn for several seconds to allow the sulfur from the tip to carry away and the match to produce a full flame. The flame is then moved in circles above the pipe while the smoker draws the flame into the tobacco.
Burning prevention
With care, a briar pipe can last a very long time without burning out. However, due to aggressive (hot) smoking, imperfections in the wood, or just bad luck, a hole can be burned in the tobacco chamber of the pipe. There are several methods used to help prevent a wood pipe from burning out. These generally involve pre-coating the chamber with carbon, or by gently smoking a new pipe to build up carbon deposits (cake, see below) on the walls.
One method to prevent a wood pipe from burning is to make a 50/50 mix of honey or powdered sugar and water, then using one's finger to spread it around the inside of the bowl, and allowing this mixture to dry. After a few bowls, the mix will create a barrier that will be burn resistant.Some pipe makers use a combination of natural sour cream, buttermilk, and activated charcoal. The sour cream and buttermilk are mixed to the consistency of milk, and the activated charcoal is added until dark grey. A pipe cleaner is pre-positioned with the tip just entering the chamber, to keep the draught hole cleared, and the tobacco chamber is coated evenly with the mixture and allowed to dry.
Another is to coat the inside of the pipe bowl with a paste made from fine cigar ash. This is allowed to dry overnight. This speeds the build-up of the desired bowl cake.
Many modern briar pipes are already pre-treated to resist burn, and if smoked correctly, the cake (a mixture of ash, unburned tobacco, oils, sugars, and other residue) will build up properly on its own. Or a more accepted technique is to alternate a half-bowl and a full-bowl the first several times the pipe is used to build an even cake. Burley is often recommended to help a new pipe build cake.
Smoking
Pipe smoke, like cigar smoke, is usually not inhaled. It is merely brought into the mouth and then released. It is normal to have to relight a pipe periodically. If it is smoked too slowly, this will happen more often. If it is smoked too quickly, it can produce excess moisture causing a gurgling sound in the pipe and an uncomfortable sensation on the tongue (referred to as "pipe tongue", or more commonly, "tongue bite").
A pipe cleaner can be used to dry out the bowl and, wetted with alcohol, the inner channel. The bowl of the pipe can also become uncomfortably hot, depending on the material and the rate of smoking. For this reason clay pipes in particular are often held by the stem. Meerschaum pipes are held in a square of chamois leather, with gloves, or else by the stem in order to prevent uneven coloring of the material.
Cleaning
The ash and the last bits of unburned tobacco, known as dottle, must be cleaned out with a pipe tool. A pipe cleaner is then run through the airways of the stem and shank to remove any moisture, ash, and other residue before the pipe is allowed to dry. A pipe should be allowed to cool before removing the stem to avoid the possibility of warping it.
A cake of ash eventually develops inside the bowl. This is generally considered desirable for controlling overall heat. However, if it becomes too thick, it may expand faster than the bowl of the pipe itself when heated, cracking the bowl. Before reaching this point, it needs to be scraped down with a reamer. It is generally recommended to keep the cake at approximately the thickness of an U.S. dime (about 1/20th of an inch or 1.5 mm), though sometimes the cake is removed entirely as part of efforts to eliminate off flavors or aromas. Cake is considered undesirable in meerschaum pipes because it can easily crack the bowl and/or interfere with the mineral's natural porosity.
Sweetening
When tobacco is burned, oils are vaporized and condense on the walls of the bowl in the existing cake and the shank. Over time, these oils can oxidize and turn rancid, causing the pipe to give a sour or bitter smoke. An effective measure called the Professor's Pipe-Sweetening Treatment involves filling the bowl with kosher salt and carefully wetting it with strong spirits. It is important to not use iodized salt, as many experts feel the iodine and other additives impart an off flavor. Some people find that regularly wiping out the bowl with spirits is helpful in preventing souring. Commercial pipe-sweetening products are also available.
"Pipe tobacco brands"
B
• Black and Mild
• Borkum Riff
C
• Captain Black (cigar)
P
• Prince Albert tobacco

portion for FP!!

BHM151 - FOUNDATION COURSE IN FOOD PRODUCTION – II (THEORY)
HOURS ALLOTED: 30 MAXIMUM MARKS: 100
S.No. Topic Hours Weight
age
01 SOUPS
A. Basic recipes other than consommé with menu examples
• Broths
• Bouillon
• Puree
• Cream
• Veloute
• Chowder
• Bisque etc
B. Garnishes and accompaniments
C. International soups
02 10%
02 SAUCES & GRAVIES
A. Difference between sauce and gravy
B. Derivatives of mother sauces
C. Contemporary & Proprietary
03 10%
03 MEAT COOKERY
A. Introduction to meat cookery
B. Cuts of beef/veal
C. Cuts of lamb/mutton
D. Cuts of pork
E. Variety meats (offals)
F. Poultry
(With menu examples of each)
04 15%
04 FISH COOKERY
A. Introduction to fish cookery
B. Classification of fish with examples
C. Cuts of fish with menu examples
D. Selection of fish and shell fish
E. Cooking of fish (effects of heat)
03 10%
05 RICE, CEREALS & PULSES
A. Introduction
B. Classification and identification
C. Cooking of rice, cereals and pulses
D. Varieties of rice and other cereals
01 5%
06 i) PASTRY
A. Short crust
B. Laminated
C. Choux
D. Hot water/Rough puff
• Recipes and methods of preparation
• Differences
• Uses of each pastry
• Care to be taken while preparing pastry
• Role of each ingredient
• Temperature of baking pastry
02 5%
National Council for Hotel Management & Catering Technology, Noida.
4
ii) Flour
A. Structure of wheat
B. Types of Wheat
C. Types of Flour
D. Processing of Wheat – Flour
E. Uses of Flour in Food Production
F. Cooking of Flour (Starch)
iii) SIMPLE BREADS
A. Principles of bread making
B. Simple yeast breads
C. Role of each ingredient in break making
D. Baking temperature and its importance
03 10%
07 PASTRY CREAMS
A. Basic pastry creams
B. Uses in confectionery
C. Preparation and care in production
02 5%
08 BASIC COMMODITIES:
i) Milk
A. Introduction
B. Processing of Milk
C. Pasteurisation – Homogenisation
D. Types of Milk – Skimmed and Condensed
E. Nutritive Value
ii) Cream
A. Introduction
B. Processing of Cream
C. Types of Cream
iii) Cheese
A. Introduction
B. Processing of Cheese
C. Types of Cheese
D. Classification of Cheese
E. Curing of Cheese
F. Uses of Cheese
iv) Butter
A. Introduction
B. Processing of Butter
C. Types of Butter
02
01
02
01
15%
09 BASIC INDIAN COOKERY
i) CONDIMENTS & SPICES
A. Introduction to Indian food
B. Spices used in Indian cookery
C. Role of spices in Indian cookery
D. Indian equivalent of spices (names)
02 5%
National Council for Hotel Management & Catering Technology, Noida.
5
ii) MASALAS
A. Blending of spices
B. Different masalas used in Indian cookery
• Wet masalas
• Dry masalas
C. Composition of different masalas
D. Varieties of masalas available in regional areas
E. Special masala blends
10 KITCHEN ORGANIZATION AND LAYOUT
A. General layout of the kitchen in various organisations
B. Layout of receiving areas
C. Layout of service and wash up
02 10%
TOTAL 30 100%

food science - water and minerals

Minerals
Mineral elements are inorganic substances found in body tissues and fluids. They occur in foods as salts e.g. sodium chloride, calcium phosphate, and ferrous sulfate. They constitute 4% of our body weight.
Unlike carbohydrates, fats, and proteins they do not furnish energy. They have many functions in our body such as tissue building, regulation of body fluids, and other functions. Like vitamins, they are required in small quantities and are vital to the body. They should be supplied daily as they are excreted through the kidney, the bowel and the skin.
Minerals are present in our body as:
a) Components of organic compounds, e.g. hemoglobin contains iron and thyroxin contains iodine.
b) In organic compound, e.g. calcium phosphate in the bones.
c) As free ions in every cell in the body and
d) In all body fluids
Sodium is the main electrolyte in the extracellular fluid, and potassium is the main electrolyte in the intracellular fluid.
The mineral elements are not destroyed by heat, oxidation, acid or alkali. Since they are soluble in water some loss occurs due to leaching when cooking water is discarded.
Minerals are inorganic elements require by the body in varying amounts to carry out various body functions. They remain largely as ash when plants and animal tissues are ignited.
Minerals may be classified into three groups:
Major minerals or macrominerals: Seven minerals are required in large amounts of over 100mg/day, e.g. calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and sulphur.
Minor minerals: These are required in small quantities, less than 100 mg/day, e.g. iron and manganese.
Trace elements: A few micrograms to a few milligrams are required per day e.g. iodine, fluoride, zinc, and molybdenum.
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF MINERALS
1. Minerals form the structural components of bones, teeth, soft tissues, blood, and muscles, e.g. calcium, phosphorous, and magnesium in bones.
2. They regulate activity of nerves with regard to stimuli and contraction of muscles, e.g. calcium.
3. Maintain acid-base balance of body fluids, e.g. sodium and chlorine.
4. They control water balance by means of osmotic pressure and permeability of cell membranes, e.g. sodium and potassium.
5. They are constituents of vitamins, e.g. thiamine contains sulphur and cyanocobalamine contains cobalt.
6. They form part of molecules of hormones and enzymes, e.g. iodine in thyroxin and zinc in insulin.
7. They activate enzymes, e.g. calcium activates enzyme lipase.
8. They regulate cellular oxidation, e.g. iron and manganese.
9. Necessary for clotting of blood, e.g. calcium.
Calcium
The adult body contains 1.2 kg of calcium of which 99% is present in bones and teeth. It is the most abundant mineral in the body. The bones provide:
1. Rigid frame work for the body
2. Reserves of calcium and releases calcium on demand.
The remaining 1% is distributed in the extracellular and intracellular fluids and has the following functions:
1. Calcium acts as a catalyst in clotting the blood.
2. It increases the permeability of cell membranes thus helping in absorption.
3. It regulates contraction and relaxation of muscles including the heart beat.
4. It activated the number of enzymes such as pancreatic lipase and acts as a co-factor.
Factors affecting calcium absorption The amount of calcium absorbed by the humans depends on the body’s need. Approximately 40% of calcium ingested is absorbed.
1. Phosphate and phytic acid is present in cereals and form insoluble calcium salts if present in excess.
2. An alkaline intestinal pH (above 7) reduces absorption by forming insoluble salts.
3. Excess fibers decreases absorption of calcium.
4. Oxalic acid in green leafy vegetables forms insoluble calcium oxalate, which is excreted.
5. Faulty absorption of fats and fatty acids form insoluble calcium salts, which are excreted
6. Lactose increases calcium absorption.
7. High protein intake increases absorption.
8. Caffeine increases urinary calcium salts and high sodium also.
9. Strenuous exercise increases the loss.
The parathyroids regulate the calcium level in blood and calcium metabolism in bone. The calcium to phosphorus ratio should always be 1:1
Sources Various sources of calcium are:
1. Milk and milk products excluding butter, ghee, and cream.
2. Ragi, green leafy vegetables especially drumstick leaves, cabbage, curry leaves, carrot and cauliflower tops and amaranth.
3. Small dried fish, nuts, and oilseeds such as gingelly seeds.
4. Betel leaf with slaked lime is a rich source of calcium.
Deficiency A severe deficiency of calcium leads to rickets in children and osteomalacia and osteoporosis in adults (refer chapter 17, vitamin D deficiency for symptoms of rickets and osteomalacia).
Osteoporosis In osteoporosis the bones become porous because of bone mineral loss. This causes compression of the vertebrate that result in loss of height, back and hip pain, and increased susceptibility to fractures. It is seen in post menopausal women and can be controlled by weight bearing exercises such as walking, calcium supplements and hormone therapy.
Tetany A decrease in serum calcium levels gives rise to a condition called tetany. The symptoms of tetany are severe intermittent spasms of the muscles of hands and feet accompanied by muscular pain. Twitching of facial muscles occurs.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus comprises 1% of total body weight. It occurs along with calcium in human nutrition and also has many other functions in the body.
1. Building bones and teeth along with calcium and magnesium.
2. DNA and RNA, nucleic acids needed for genetic coding contain phosphorus.
3. As phospholipids, they regulate the absorption and transport of fats.
4. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) are necessary for storing and releasing energy according to body needs.
5. As part of enzymes needed for the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
Sources Phosphorus is widely distributed in foods. Milk and meat are rich in phosphorous. Whole grain cereals, legumes, nuts, carrots, and fish are also rich resources of phosphorus.
Deficiency Phosphorous deficiency is rare since a diet that contains adequate protein and calcium will be rich in phosphorus. Deficiency symptoms are similar to calcium deficiency.
Iron
The human body 3-5 g of iron of which 70% is in the circulating hemoglobin.
Functions:
1. Essential for carrying O2 to the lungs where O2 is released and CO2 is picked up to be exhaled by hemoglobin in the red blood cells.
2. It is an essential part of several oxidative enzymes.
3. It helps in specific brain functions such as good attention span and capacity to learn and memorize.
4. It facilitates the complete oxidation of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats within the cell and release of energy for performing physical energy.
Diet improves iron in two forms:
1. Haeme iron i.e. iron associated to the protein, globin, to form hemoglobin. Haeme iron is found in flesh food only.
2. Non-haeme iron is the form present in all plant sources plus 60% of animal sources.
Haeme iron is present in small quantities in food. About 40% iron in flesh food is haeme iron, while 60% is non-haeme iron. It is rapidly absorbed and transported. About 23% is absorbed.
Non-haeme iron is the larger portion of iron in food. It is tightly bound to organic molecules in the form of ferric iron (Fe+++). In the acidic medium of the stomach, it is dissociated and reduced to its more soluble ferrous form (Fe++). The absorption rate of non-haeme iron is slow and approximately 8% is absorbed.
Vitamin C from the diet and hydrochloric acid in gastric juice help in converting ferric iron to ferrous iron.
Factors affecting iron absorption: The following factors enhance absorption:
Body need In periods of extra demand or in a deficiency, more iron is absorbed.
Acidic Medium Gastric acidity and ascorbic acid in the meal favour absorption.
Form of iron Haeme iron and ferrous iron are better absorbed.
Complete proteins Complete proteins such as meat favour absorption.
The following factors decrease absorption:
1. Ferric iron or non-haeme iron in the absence of proteins and ascorbic acid are poorly absorbed.
2. Achlorhydria or lack of hydrochloric acid in gastric juice and use of antacids with meal interfere with absorption.
3. Tea and coffee with meals.
4. Excessive intake of phytates and oxalates interferes with absorption.
5. Malabsorption due to intestinal disorders.
Iron is required for replacements of daily losses through excretion in urine, sweat, hair, and worn out cells. It is also needed for replacement of blood losses and an expanding blood volume in all stages of growth.
Sources Various sources of iron are:
1. Liver, organs meats, shellfish, lean meat, egg yolk are all good sources of iron.
2. Green leafy vegetables, whole grain, and enriched cereals, legumes and jaggery (50g will meet the requirement.
3. Garden cress seeds and niger seeds are excellent sources.
4. Peaches, apricots, manukas and figs
5. Use of iron cooking utensils contributes significantly to the iron content of the diet.
Non-haeme iron is present in plant food such as green vegetables, and cereals. 40% of iron in meat, poultry, and fish is haeme iron and 60% is non-haeme iron.
Deficiency Iron deficiency or anaemia is very common in the vulnerable age groups in all developing countries. Haemoglobin level may be as low as 5-9g. Normal haemoglobin levels for females are 11.5%-14.5% and for males 12.5%-16.5%.
Symptoms General fatigue, breathlessness on exertion, giddiness, and pallor of skin (paleness), oadema of ankles and spoon shaped nails are the common symptoms of iron deficiency.
Iron deficiency causes microcytic and hypochromic anaemia. Red blood cell’s appear pale and smaller in size. Iron deficiency may also be seen if excessive blood loss occurs or because of faulty absorption, intestinal disease, or parasites especially hookworm and roundworm infestations.
Iodine
Most of the iodine in adult body is found in the thyroid gland. The only known function of iodine is as a constituent of thyroxin. The thyroid hormone regulates the rate of oxidation within the cells. The iodine absorbed is incorporated into the amino acid tyrosine to form the hormone thyroxin.
Iodine + Tyrosine  Thyroxin
If intake of iodine is inadequate, the stores of thyroxin are gradually depleted and the thyroid gland enlarges in an attempt to produce the necessary thyroxin.
Sources Seafood contains maximum iodine and fruits contain the least. Wide variations are seen because food content of iodine depends upon the soil where they are grown. To provide sufficient iodine, salt is being iodized. Salt is a universally used dietary item. It is cheap and addiction of iodine does not affect its flavour. It is added in form of sodium or potassium iodide in the proportion of 1mg for every 10g of salt.
Deficiency Deficiency occurs when the iodine content of the soil is so low that insufficient iodine is obtained through food, e.g., the soil the Kangra valley in Himalayan region is deficient in iodine. Deficiency of iodine results in goitre.
Symptoms
1. Enlargement of thyroid gland.
2. Cretinism in children (stunted growth). Cretinism is characterized by a low basal metabolism rate (BMR), flabby and weak muscles, dry skin. Skeletal development stops and mental retardation is seen.
Goitrogens – are substances in food known to interfere with the use of thyroxin and can produce goitre. They are present in the red skin of peanuts and in vegetables such as cabbage and cauliflower, turnips and mustard.
Fluorine
Fluorine is the normal constituent of the body, found mainly in bones and teeth. Small amounts of fluorine brings about striking reductions in the tooth decay probably because the tooth enamel is made more resistant to the action of acids produced by bacteria in the mouth.
Sources Milk, eggs, and fish are important sources. Fluoridation of water to ensure a concentration of 1 ppm is a safe and economical way to reduce the incidence of dental caries.
Deficiency A deficiency results in dental caries and is seen in areas where drinking water contains less than 0.5 ppm of fluorine. Adding fluorine at a level of 1 ppm reduces the incidence of dental caries by 50%. Food as well as water contains varying amounts of fluorine.
Fluorosis Fluorosis or mottling of teeth occurs in parts of the world where drinking water contains excessive amounts of fluorine, i.e., 3-5 ppm. Teeth lose their lustrous appearance. Enamel becomes dull and unglazed and chalky white patches are seen. Sometimes enamel is pitted giving the tooth surface a corroded appearance. Skeletal Fluorosis may also be seen. There is hypercalcification of the bones. Mottled areas may get yellow brown stains or discolored.
Sodium Sodium chloride or common salt is a daily ingredient in our diet. The adult body contains 180g of sodium most of which is present in the extracellular fluid of the body.
The functions of sodium are as follows:
1. Maintaining fluid balance and normal osmotic pressure between intracellular and extracellular compartments.
2. It maintains normal irritability of nerves and helps in muscles contraction.
3. Regulates the alkalinity and acidity of body fluids along with the mineral chloride.
4. Regulates cell permeability or passage of substances into and out of the cell.
Sources Milk, egg white, meat, poultry, green leafy vegetables, Bengal gram dal, beetroot, and knolkhol are good sources.
The sodium from additives should also be included in the sodium content of a meal.
Deficiency A deficiency is seen in people engaged in heavy physical activities such as farm and mine workers and in athletes. It may also occur in cases of severe vomiting or diarrhoea. It results in weakness, giddiness, nausea, and muscles cramps. It can be treated by adding salt to water and lime juice and if this is not retained, intravenous saline could be given.
Excess An excessive intake of sodium should be avoided as it predisposes a person to hypertension. Salt is 40% sodium, which means that a teaspoon full of salt provides 2g or 2000mg of sodium. Sodium is present is food and as well as in many ingredient added to food such as sodium bicarbonate, monosodium glutamate, sodium benzoate, sodium propionate, and sodium nitrate. These need to be curtailed on a low sodium diet.
Potassium
It is present as the major electrolyte in all body cells.
Functions:
1. As a component of all living cells in the intracellular fluid it helps in regulating the water balance along with the sodium.
2. It regulates the acid-base balance like sodium.
3. It helps in transmitting nerve impulses and contraction of muscle tissues.
Sources Fruits, vegetables, pulses, nuts, flesh food, and whole grain are rich in potassium.
Deficiency Deficiency of potassium is unlikely in normal circumstances but may occur in severe malnutrition, chronic alcoholism, surgery and prolonged infection.
Magnesium
About 60% is found along with calcium and phosphorous in the bones and teeth. The remaining 40% is present in the tissues and the body fluids and performs the following functions:
1. It is present mainly in the intracellular fluid and helps in maintaining fluid balance along with sodium, potassium, and calcium.
2. It helps in transmission of nerve impulses, muscles contraction and regulation of the heart beat.
3. It acts as a co-factor in many metabolic reactions.
Sources Milk, cheese, fish, meat, whole grains, pulses, and nuts.
Deficiency Deficiency of magnesium is uncommon. It may not occur in malnutrition and alcoholism. Symptoms of deficiency are similar to tetany and include muscle tremors, spasms, and convulsions.





WATER

Water is so familiar and so large a constituent of the body that its fundamental importance in both structure and functioning of all tissues tends to be overlooked.

Water is the most essential constituent of our body. It accounts for 55%-70% of out total body weight. The total body fluid is distributed among two major compartments.

1. The extracellular fluid or water present outside the cells in the intestinal spaces and blood plasma.
2. The intracellular fluid or the water present inside the cells

Considering an average of 60% of body weight is contributed by water, an adult weighing 70kg has a total body water of 42 liters of which 28 is intracellular and 14 is extracellular. Water present in the body has electrolytes dissolved in it. Thus when the body looses water, it looses electrolytes as well.

Sodium is the principal electrolyte of the extracellular fluid while potassium is predominant in the intracellular spaces. The normal concentration of ions in the intracellular and extracellular fluids needs to be maintained at all times. This concentration of ions is preserved by a balance between the intake of water and the output or loss of body water.

FUNCTIONS

1. Water quenches thirst and is the most refreshing and cooling of all liquids
2. It is a structural component of all cells. In the bone, water is tightly bound, but in most tissues, a constant interchange takes place between the body compartments of water.
3. It it the medium in which all chemical reactions take place
4. It is an essential component of all body fluids such as blood, lymph, bile etc
5. It acts as a lubricant and helps food to be swallowed and digested food to pass through the gastro intestinal tract.
6. It is essential to maintain the turgidity of cells
7. It acts as a solvent for the products of digestion and helps in transporting these products to different tissues.
8. It regulates the body temperature by taking up and distributing heat produced in cells when metabolic reactions take place.
9. It helps in excreting waste products of metabolic reactions

DAILY INTAKE OF WATER

Apart from the water we drink during the day to relieve thrist between and during meals, there are three major sources of water.

Beverages and liquid foods: Hot and cold beverages such as tea, coffee etc. are largely made up of water. They are an important source of water and nutrients.

Water content of solid foods: Another important source of water is fruits, vegetables etc. Solid food contain varying percentages of water
The water consumed from beverages and solid food amounts to 2,100 ml/day approx.

Metabolic water: It is synthesized in the body as a result of oxidation of fat, proteins, carbohydrates adding to about 200 ml/day.
Oxidation of 100 g fat ► 107 ml water
100 g protein ► 41 ml water
100 g carbohydrate ► 56 ml water

The intake of fluid varies among different people and also varies according to the climate, habits and physical activity on a day to day basis.

DAILY LOSS OF BODY WATER

Insensible water loss: It is the loss of water we are not consciously aware of even though it occurs continuously in all living beings. It includes

(a) Continuous loss of fluid by evaporation frm the skin, which occurs independently of sweating and
(b) Insensible water loss though the respiratory tract, which is about 300-400 ml/day

Water loss through sweat: The extent of water loss through perspiration or sweat largely depends on physical activity and environmental temperature.

Water loss in urine: This is the most important mechanism by which the body maintains a balance between fluid intake and output as well as electrolyte homeostasis. Urine volume can be as low as 0.5 liters/day to as high as 20 liters/day. The rate of filtrations of water in the normal kidney is about 125ml/minute or approx. 180 liters a day for an adult. About 99% of the water filtered is reabsorbed into the blood while 500-2,000 ml is excreted as urine.

Water loss in faeces: Only a small amount of water is normally lost in faeces, The saliva, gastrointestinal secretion and bile may together add to 8 liters or more fluid per day. If there is diarrhea or vomiting, fluid losses may be large and cause dehydration.








WATER BALANCE

Deficiency of Water

Excessive loss of water could take place due to diarrhoea, vomiting, fever, excessive perspiration etc. It can result in dehydration. Dehydration can be classified as

Mild<5% fluid loss
Moderate 5-15% fluid loss
Severe 15-20% fluid loss

A dehydrated person feels thirsty, has a dry mouth, sunken and dry eyes and may feel restless, irritable, lethargic or unconscious in severe cases. The skin when pinched does not go back quickly. A dehydrated person is usually managed by Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT). The WHO recommends Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) that are to be dissolved to 1 litre of water.

ORS are most prescribed in cases of diarrhoea. Glucose present in ORS, ORT also includes any of the following.

1. Sugar and salt solution
40g sucrose + 4g NaCl in 1 litre of water
2. Rice water with salt
50g rice + 4 g salt in 1 litre of water
3. Dilute salted lassi
4. Plain water, lemon water, coconut water, thin soups or dal water may also be given along with ORT

If vomiting is severe, intravenous fluids such as normal saline and dextrose need to be given. When the body looses fluids, it looses both water and electrolytes, hence ORS or Dextrose Normal Saline (DNS) is given. Dehydration cannot be treated by giving pure water only

Retention of Water

Oedema is the retention of salt and water in the interstitial fluid giving rise to swelling of the skin. A pit of depression is formed when pressure is applied with the finger to the swollen skin and this is how oedema is distinguished from swelling. Water and salt may need to be restricted.

Daily Requirement

A minimum of sic to eight glasses of water is recommended to enable the body to perform optimally and keep one active and refreshed throughout the day. It should be consumed at regular intervals so that the body is always well hydrated this quantity is independent of other fluids consumed. .

food science - menu planning&mass fp + balanced diet!

Menu Planning and Mass Food Production

INTRODUCTION

In the past few decades, people ate in restaurants occasionally to celebrate a special event such as an anniversary, a birthday, or an achievement. It was an outing to look forward to, and if one indulged, it did not matter as these outings were rare.

Today, the scenario is different. Eating out has become a way of life. Education and employment has taken many of us away from home, and the mother’s role now has an added responsibility of contributing to the family income. Modern day compulsions have made eating out a necessity. No longer does one find time for the traditional fare of yesteryears and depends on the caterer for the following:
1. Food for festivals and celebrations
2. Meals at the work place
3. Ready-to-eat meals picked up on the way home from work
4. Snacks and sweetmeats for daily consumption
5. Preserves, pickles, papads, etc.
6. All meals served in institutions such as hospitals, school/college cafeteria, mess or dining hall, and boarding schools.

The number of reported cases of diabetes, hypertension, obesity, heart attacks, etc. is on the rise and so is the number of meals consumed away from home. This is not surprising because if one indulges practically everyday, it is bound to result in ill-health because of malnutrition. The caterer’s role has become more significant as the responsibility now lies with the caterer for planning nutritionally adequate meals. Menu planning is the key to overcoming this problem.

DEFINITION
Menu planning is defined as a simple process which involves application of the knowledge of food, nutrients, food habits, and likes and dislikes to plan wholesome and attractive meals.

The caterer who is responsible for providing meals has to decide on various aspects such as:
1. Menu
2. Serving size
3. Food cost
4. Suppliers and quantities to be purchased
5. Standardized recipes to be followed
6. Type of service
7. Meal timings
8. Clientele

The aim of menu planning is to:
1. Meet the nutritional needs of the individuals who will be consuming the food
2. Plan meals within the food cost
3. Simplify purchase, preparation, and storage of meals
4. Provide attractive, appetizing meals with no monotony
5. Save time and money
6. Minimize overhead expenditure, i.e., fuel, electricity, water, labour.

Menu planning is the most important aspect of planning and organization in the food industry. It is an advance plan of a dietary pattern over a given period of time.

Menus are of the following types:
Table d’hôte or fixed price menu It includes two or three courses at a set price. Each course may offer a choice of dishes.

A la carte On this menu, dishes are individually priced and the customers can compile their own menu which may be one, two or more courses.

Banquet menus These are special menus for banquets or functions.

Institutional menus Hospital menus, boarding school menus, and Industrial canteen menus.

Menu may be cyclic which means they are compiled to cover a specified period of time. The length of the cycle may vary and is decided upon by the management. A number of menus are set up and repeated. They are often modified to take into account variations, which may arise for a number of reasons.

FACTORS INFLUENCING MEAL PLANNING
Many factors influence the acceptability of a meal. Customers select what appeals most to them from a menu card based on individual likes and dislikes, budget, popularity of items, etc. However, while planning meals the following factors need to be considered.

Nutritional Adequacy
The most important consideration in menu planning is to ensure that the meal fulfils the nutrient needs of the individual consuming the meal. For example, if the meal is planned for an Indus trial worker, it must meet the RDAs for that age group. Foods from all basic food groups should be included in each meal so that the meal is balanced and nutritionally adequate. Nutrient needs may be modified for hospital diets (therapeutic diets).

Economic Considerations
The spending power of the clientele has to be kept in mind and meals have to be planned within the budget. Low cost nutritious substitutes should be included in the menu to keep the costs low. The food cost should be maintained, if the organization has to run profitably.

Food Service
Menus should be planned in relation to the type of food service, whether it is cafeteria, seated service, buffet, etc.

Equipment and Work Space
The menu should be planned keeping the available equipment and workspace in mind. Deep freezers, refrigerators, grinders, dough kneaders, deep fat fryers, boilers, etc. should be adequate.

Leftover Food
An effective manager should consider as to how leftovers could be rotated to obtain maximum profit. Adequate storage space and hygienic standards should be ensured to minimize the risk of contamination and spoilage of food.

Food Habits
Food habits of the customer is another important criteria which needs to be considered as food served has to be acceptable to the customer. Special attention should be paid when a particular type of community is catered to. Religious considerations should be known to the meal planner.

Availability
Some fruits and vegetables are seasonal. During the season the cost is reasonable and quality is better. Today, practically all fruits and vegetables are available throughout the year because of advanced preservation technology. However, seasonal fruits and vegetables should be given preference. Regional availability influences menu planning. For example, fish and sea food is fresh and cheaper in coastal areas.

Meal Frequency and Pattern
The meal timings and number of meals consumed in a day, whether meals are packed or served at the table, also influences the selection of food items on the menu. The age, activity level, physiological state, work schedule, and economic factors need to be known before planning meals for institutional catering.

Variety
This is one of the most important considerations while planning meals. A variety of foods from the different food groups should be included. The term variety means
1. Variety in food ingredients
2. Variety in recipe
3. Method of cooking
4. Colour, texture and flavour
5. Variety in presentation and garnish.

A meal should look attractive and be appetizing. A judicious blend of flavours, attractive colour combinations and different textures make food enjoyable and interesting. The method of cooking used for different items on the menu should vary.
For example, two deep fried items would make the meal heavy. Simple processes such as fermentation and sprouting not only contribute to improved flavour and digestibility, but also enhance the nutritive value of the meal.
A well planned meal which is nutritionally adequate would have a good satiety value and prevent the occurrence of hunger-pangs before it is time for the next meal. The nutritional adequacy of a meal in an a la carte service depends on the food choices made by the customer. It is the duty of the caterer to offer adequate, nutrient dense foods to the clients, to choose from.

PLANNING BALANCED MEALS

Meal planning involves proper selection of food to ensure balanced meals. In Chapter 20 on balanced diets we have studied how food is classified into five basic food groups to help us plan balanced diets. We have also read that food can be classified on the basis of its source, the nutrients present in it, or on the basis of its functions into 3 – 11 groups. These food groups help us in planning balanced meals which supply all essential nutrients. In this chapter we will study the three basic food groups classified on the basis of functions performed by nutrients as this is the simplest way to ensure adequate nourishment to the body.

The three main functions performed by food are:
1. Providing energy
2. Body building and maintenance
3. Regulation of body processes and protection against infection.

On the basis of functions performed, food is classified into the following three groups.
1. Protective/regulatory foods
2. Body building foods
3. Energy giving foods

Protective/Regulatory Foods
All fruits and vegetables – green leafy and other vegetables and all fruits are included.

Green leafy vegetables, Rich in carotene and
Orange, yellow and red ascorbic acid. Also
Fruits and vegetables, contain minerals, fibre,
Citrus fruits. And carbohydrates.


Body Building Foods
Foods rich in protein are included in this group. Nuts and oilseeds also provide fats.

All animal proteins Protein, vitamin and mineral
Pulses, nuts and oilseeds Protein, vitamin, mineral,
fibre,oils.

Energy Giving Foods
This group provides mainly carbohydrates and fats, along with proteins, some vitamins and minerals, and essential fatty acids. Foods included in this group are :

1. Cereals and millets, Carbohydrate rich roots and tubers. with other nutrients.
2. Sugars and jaggery Only carbohydrates.
3. Fats and oils Mainly fats.

While planning meals one should ensure that foods from all three groups is included in each meal. This classification is simple and easy to use for menu planning.

STEPS IN PLANNING BALANCED MEALS

1. Collect information regarding the customer with respect to

• Age
• Gender
• Activity level
• Religion
• Socio-economic background
• Food habits

2. Check the RDAs for energy and proteins
3. Prepare a food plan, i.e., list number of servings from each food group to meet the RDA.
4. Decide on number of meals.
5. Distribute servings for each meal.
6. Select foods within each group and state their amount.
7. Plan a menu.
8. Cross check to ensure that all food groups are included in requisite amounts.

Using the above steps, plan a balanced diet for a day.
Example : planning balanced meals for college students residing in a hostel.

1. Basic information

Age : 16 – 18 years
Gender : Male
Activity : Moderate
Religion : Hindu
Background : Urban, middle income families
Food habits : Cosmopolitan

2. Recommended Dietary Allowance for

Calories : 2640
Protein : 78g

3. Food Plan


EFFECT OF QUANTITY COOKING AND PROCESSING ON NUTRIENTS
Almost all foods consumed today need some form of cooking and processing before it is fit for service and consumption. Fruits and vegetables used in salads or for chutney are consumed uncooked. The nutrients we receive from the meals we consume depend to a large extent on cooking and processing practices which are being used. While some amount of nutrient loss is inevitable, cooking has many benefits which are listed below.

Benefits of Cooking Food
1. Cooking increases palatability
2. Cooking makes food easier to digest by destroying anti-digestive factors such as trypsin inhibitor in soya beans.
3. Pathogenic micro-organisms are destroyed.
4. Shelf life is increased by destruction of spoilage organisms and denaturation of enzymes.
5. The appearance of food improves, e.g., cooked meat versus raw meat.

Common Food Processing Techniques
1. Removal of unwanted outer layers, e.g., potato peels, inedible shells and scales of fish, and pea pods, and removal of inedible seeds, stones, etc.
2. Cutting, slicing, micing, grinding, or reducing the size of vegetables, fruits, meat, etc.
3. Liquefaction and emulsification, milling and blending.
4. Heat treatment – blanching, cooking by various methods such as boiling, frying and roasting.
5. Incorporation of air – beating, whipping, aeration of soft drinks.
6. Extrusion.
7. Dehydration, freeze drying, deep freezing, etc.
8. Fermentation.

Food prepared in large quantity in institutional kitchens or in food processing plants is more prone to loss of nutrients, if adequate care is not taken to retain or preserve the nutrient. This is because if food is cooked in bulk, the pre-preparation begins hours in advance, e.g., vegetables have to be cut in advance and if these are not blanched and refrigerated to inactivate enzymes, oxidative losses of labile vitamins will continue at room temperature. Apart from nutritive value, the crisp texture of salads is also lost and phenol containing vegetables will discolour and turn brown, making the dish unattractive and unappetizing.

Effect of heat on nutrients
Cooking has beneficial effects on carbohydrates because of gelatinization of starch, favorable browning reactions such as Maillard reaction and caramelization of sugar which gives colour and flavour to food.
Proteins too take part in Maillard reaction along with sugar. Enzymes which catalyse undesirable enzymatic reactions in fruits such as apple and pears, and vegetables such as potato and brinjal are inactivated on blanching or cooking these foods. Enzymes which hasten oxidative destruction of vitamin C or ascorbic acid are denatured by blanching. Proteins get denatured by heat.
The chemical reactions that take place when oil is heated continuously during deep fat frying bring about hydrolysis, oxidation and polymerization of the oil.
The moisture from the foods being fried hydrolyse fat into free fatty acids, mono and diglycerides and glycerol.











The release of moisture, high frying temperatures of 160-190degrees C, presence of carbonized crumbs in the oil and oxygen from the atmosphere during frying brings about oxidation of the oil. Repeated use of the frying medium forms thermal and vitamins. These products undergo polymerization and increase the viscocity of the oil. The oil darkens in color, has a lower smoke point and foams when used for frying. Such oil should be discarded. Fat soluble vitamins dissolve in fat used for deep frying specially if the food to be fried is not well coated.

Effect of alkali
Alkali is used during cooking and processing to soften vegetables, make pectin soluble, and dissolve hemicelluloses. It is also used as lye(sodium hydroxide) to peel vegetables during processing. A pinch of sodium bicarbonate added to green vegetables helps in brightening the green colour. However, B-complex vitamins and ascorbic acid are destroyed in an alkaline medium. The use of alkali to hasten the cooking process for vegetables and pulses should be discouraged. Excessive cooking in an alkaline medium not only destroys vitamins but makes the texture mushy and gives a soapy taste to the product.

Effect of acid
An acidic medium while cooking helps preserve water soluble vitamins and retards enzymatic browning of certain fruits and vegetables. Vegetables and pulses take a longer time to cook in an acidic medium as acids precipitate pectin and hardens vegetables.

Effect of washing and soaking
While preparing food, water soluble vitamins and minerals leach out into the cooking or washing water. These losses can be minimized by washing the uncut fruit or vegetables and not soaking the cut vegetables in water.
Soaking grains and pulses in water is beneficial as soaking increases digestibility and reduces cooking time.

Effect of sprouting and fermentation
Soaking whole grains overnight in water and tying them in a muslin cloth to allow them to germinate has many beneficial effects.
1. In sprouted grains, the dormant seed becomes active and synthesizes vitamin C.
2. Partial breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fats begins making it easier to digest.
3. The bio-availability of nutrients especially calcium and iron increases.
4. The active seeds synthesize vitamin C and thiamine, riboflavin and niacin content increases.


Exposure to air or oxidation
Exposure of finely divided foods to oxygen of the air reduces the vitamin C content by oxidation. The enzyme ascorbic acid oxidase is released when fruits and vegetables are cut. The enzyme activity is temperature dependent and can be inactivated by blanching or by storing cut fruits and vegetables at refrigeration temperatures or by adding acid.
Vitamin A is destroyed on exposure to air. The colour of cut carrots
(carotene) fades due to oxidation and B-complex vitamins are also affected.

Milling
Whole meal flour contains all nutrients present in the grain. In flour with 100% extraction no nutrients are lost. Low extraction flours (45% extraction) are light in color and are mainly starch with some protein and fat. Approximately 70% of all B-complex vitamins, minerals and dietary fibre present in the whole grain are lost during milling.
Polished rice(the form in which rice is consumed) loses 75% vitaminB1 or thiamine, while parboiling helps in retaining some of the vitamin.
Cooking and processing practices vary widely from one region to another, hence no authentic information on exact losses can be known. While cooking has both adverse and beneficial effects, proper practices can minimize the adverse effects and maximize the benefits so that food can become more wholesome and safe.

Enhancing nutritive value of food
Process Foodstuff Nutrient
Fortification/enrichment Salt
Bread
Hydrogenated fat

Flour

Fruit juice Iodine
Lysine (amino acid)
Vitamin A and vitamin D
Vitamin B1, niacin, Fe and Ca.
Vitamin C
Sprouting Whole grain cereals and pulses Vitamin C
B-complex vitamins
Bioavailability of iron increases
Fermentation Cereal and pulses
Bread dough Thiamine, riboflavin and niacin
Food combinations Cereal +pulses
Cereal + small quantity of animal protein
Cereal + pulses + green leafy vegetables Protein quality improves, becomes complete protein.
Iron utensils for cooking and tempering Any food, preferably acidic, cooked or stirred or tempered with iron cooking utensils. Iron
Correct cooking methods Correct washing, pre-preparation, cooking and storage procedures. Maximum retention of nutrients


















The release of moisture, high frying temperatures of 160˚C - 190˚C, presence of carbonized crumbs in the oil and oxygen from the atmosphere during frying brings about oxidation of the oil. Repeated use of the frying medium forms thermal and vitamins. These products undergo polymerization and increase the viscosity of the oil. The oil darkens in colour, has alower smoke point, and foams when used for frying. Such oil should be discarded. Fat soluble vitamins dissolve in fat used for deep frying specially if food to be fried is not well coated.

Effect of alkali
Alkali is used during cooking and processing to soften vegetables, make pectin soluble, and dissolve hemicellulose. It is also used as lye (sodium hydroxide) which is a caustic alkaline chemical to peel vegetables during processing. A pinch of sodium bicarbonate added to green vegetables helps in brightening the green colour. However, B-complex vitamins and ascorbic acid are destroyed in an alkaline medium.



Balanced Diet

INTRODUCTION

Nutrients are needed by humans in specific amounts to ensure good health and well-being. These nutrient needs are met by eating the right kinds and amounts of food, if a diet is planned and given to an individual with the correct kinds and proportions of different nutrients, and he is asked to follow it everyday, it will become monotonous. Also a diet which is acceptable to one individual may not be acceptable to another individual for many different reasons such as food preferences, customs, food habits, age, economic reasons, and allergies.

RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCES

While planning balanced diets, we need certain guidelines regarding the kinds and amounts of nutrients that require for maintenance of good health. The RDA is the guideline stating he amount of nutrients to be actually consumed in order to meet the requirements of the body. The RDA is based on requirements.
The requirement for a particular nutrient is the minimum level that needs to be consumed to perform specific functions in the body and to prevent deficiency symptoms. It should also maintain satisfactory stores of the nutrients in the body.
Recommended dietary allowances are based on a person’s requirements for different nutrient. In other words

Recommended Dietary Allowances = Requirement + Margin of safety

The margin of safety is added to take care of factors such as:
1. Losses during cooking and processing
2. Short periods of deficient intake
3. Nature of the diet
4. Individual variations in requirements.

For example the requirement of iron in western countries is 10 mg for adult men and 15 mg for adult women respectively, while Indian RDAs suggest an intake of 28 mg for adult men and 30 mg for adult women. This is because the form of iron consumed varies and the factors interfering with absorption of iron such as phytates in cereals and larger proportions of nonhaeme iron present in Indian diets. The requirement for vitamin C or ascorbic acid is actually 20 mg, but since the vitamin is easily destroyed during pre-preparation, cooking, and storage. The recommended intake is twice the requirement and is 40 mg/day.
The RDAs apply to healthy individuals and are set high enough to cover individual variation. They are based on gender, age, body size, activity level, and special physiological state. Disease and drugs prescribed for treatment for one or more nutrients.

RDAs for Specific Nutrients

The RDAs are expressed in metric units such as kilocalorie (kCal), grams (g), milligrams (mg), and micrograms (µg).
How much food each individual will need will depend on many factors which have been considered while computing the Recommended Dietary allowances. Factors such as age, gender, and special physiological needs have been kept in mind. The RDA table gives us the quantity of different nutrients to be included in our daily diet. The second important factor we need to know to know to ensure the right selection of food is its nutritive value. Most foods contain more than a single nutrient. The nutritive value of different foods have been analysed in the laboratory and on the basis of this information , food consumption tables have been formulated.
This tables give us the percentage of important nutrients in the edible portion of all foods we consume, we can calculate its nutritive value with the help of food consumption tables. This can be compared with the RDAs which will tell us wether our diet is nutritionally adequate or not. The RDA is a goal to be achived and food is selected so that we reach the goal.
However, this process is time consuming and not at all practical as lengthy calculations are necessary. What is needed is a practical guide which can help individuals to select foods of their choice according to their choice according to their nutritional requirements. Since no single food provides all the nutrients in desirable amount, and all foods differ in their nutrient content, it becomes necessary to divide food into groups to help us consume a balanced diet.

Balanced Diet A balanced diet is one which includes a variety of foods in adequate amounts and correct proportions to meet the day’s requirements of all essential nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates, fat, vitamins, minerals, water and fibre. Such a diet helps to promote and preserve good health and also provides a safety margin or reserve of nutrients to withstand short durations of emergency.
The safety margin takes care of the days on which we fast, or on a certain day all nutrients may not be consumed. If the balanced diet meets the RDA for an individual;, then the safety margin is already included as the RDA is formulated keeping extra allowances in mind.
A balanced diet takes care of the following aspects:

1. It includes a variety of food items
2. It meets the RDA for all nutrients
3. Nutrients are included in correct proportions
4. Provides a safety margin for nutrients
5. It promotes and preserves good health
6. Maintains acceptable body weight for height

BASIC FOOD GROUPS

One of the simplest ways to plan a balanced diet is to divide foods into groups. Foods are grouped on the basis of the predominant nutrients present in them. They may be classified into three, four, five, seven or eleven food groups. This classification varies from one country to another depending on many factors. For example, in India we do not have milk products or flesh foods as a separate food group because of religion, economic reasons, etc. The five food group classification is used in India as a guide to meal planning. Many factors have been considered while compiling these groups such as availability of food, cost, meal pattern, and deficiency diseases prevalent. Not all foods in each group are equal in their nutrient content. That is why a variety of foods from each group should be included in the diet.
A food group consists of a number of foods which have common characteristics. These common features may be the source of food, the physiological function performed, or the nutrients present.
On the basis of the source of food, at least fourteen groups can be identified, e.g. cereals, pulses, milk and milk products, egg, flesh foods, nujts and oilseeds, sugar and sweetness, fats and oils, root vegetables, other vegetables, green leafy vegetables, fruits, condiments and spices, and miscellaneous foods. This does not simplify the planning of balanced meals. A classification based on nutrients present will ensure that all nutrients made available to the body and offer greater variety within the group.

GUIDELINES FOR USING THE BASIC FOOD GROUP

1. Include at least one or a minimum number of servings from each food group in each meal.
2. Make choices within each group as foods within each group are similar but not identical in nutritive value.
3. If the meal is vegetarian proteins with suitable combinations to improve the overall protein quality of the diet. For example, serving cereal, pulse combinations or including small quantities of milk or curds in the meal.
4. Include uncooked vegetables and fruits in the meals.
5. Include at least one serving of milk to ensure a supply of calcium and other nutrients as milk contains all nutrients except iron, vitamin C, and fibre.
6. Cereals should not supply more than 75% of total calories.

The food guide pyramid is an educational tool that shows the dietry guidelines in the easily understand graphic format. It was originally prepared by the Human Nutrition Information Service and published in 1992 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It is meant for use by the general healthy population s a guide for the amounts and types of foods to be included in the daily diet. The pyramid was designed to help teach the concepts of variety, moderation and the inclusion of food types in appropriate proportion in the total diet. The food guide pyramid can be modified for different age groups. Food guide pyramid helps to reduce the risk of chronic diseases and meets the RDA of different nutrients.
FOOD EXCHANGE LIST The food exchange lists are used in meal planning to make a quick and fairly accurate estimation of the nutritive value of diets. These are used to calculate the energy, carbohydrates, fats and proteins content of the meals. The exchange lists were first published by a joint committee of the American Dietetics Association, American Dietetics Association and the U.S. Public Health Services in 1950 and were revised in 1976.
In the making of exchange list, similar foods are grouped together so that specified amounts of all foods listed in that group or exchange, have approximately the same energy, carbohydrates, proteins, and fats content. The nutritive value of specific foods in the exchange may slightly differ from the average value for that food exchange, but on variety of food selected in the daily diet, these differences tend to get cancelled. So any, one food in a particular list can be exchanged for any other food of the same list.
So, an exchange list allows one to make a wider choice in selecting foods within every exchange, while controlling the total energy and fats in the total diet.
EXCHANGE LIST

SR.NO Name of food item Exchange Amt (g) Energy (Kcal) CHO (g) Protein (g) Fats(g)
I Cereals 1 30 100 21 3 0.5

II Pulses 1 30 100 17 7 0.5
Soyabean 1 23 100 4.8 10 4.4

III Nuts and oilseeds 1 8 50 1.7 1.7 4

IV Milk and milk prdts
Milk ( C) 1 150ml 100 6.6 5 6
Curds ( C) 1 150 100 4.5 4.5 7
Paneer( C) 1 40 100 - 7 8
Cheese 1 20 100 2 7 7
Milk ( B) 1 85ml 100 4 4 7.5

V Meat and Poultry

Fowl, goat meat 1 90 100 - 18 3
Mutton muscle 1 50 100 - 10.5 6.5

Egg (Hen) 1 50 85 - 6.6 6.6

VI Fish 1 100 100 2 21 1
Bombay Duck 1 35 100 - 21 2

VII Veg A 1 150 25 6.2 - -
Fresh green peas 1 27 25 4.3 2 -
(ash gourd, ambatchuka, amaranth ,bottle gourd, bitter gourd, brinjal, celerystalk,cabbage,tomato,coriander,colocasia,cucumber,cluster,capsicum,cluster beans, cauliflower, cowpea pods, drumstick leaves, drumstick, French beans, ghosala, jackfruit, knol khol greens, knol khol, lettuce, ladies fingers, mayalu, mustard leaves, mint, methi, mango green pumpkin, parwar, plaintain green, ridge gourd, radish white. Radish pink, snakegourd. Spinach, shepu, tinda, tomatogreen, onionstalks)

VIII Veg B 1 50 50 11 1.5 -
( Yam, potato, colocassia, sweet potato, tapioca)
Carrot, onion, beetroot 1 100 50 11 1.5 -

IX Fruits
Group I 1 300 50 12.5 - -
Muskmelon and watermelon
Group II 150
Fig and papaya 50 12.5 - -
Group III 1 100 50 12.5 - -
Orange, guava, sweet lime
Group IV 1 80 50 12.5 - -
Apple, cherries, lichi, grapes
Group V 1 50 50 12.5 - -
Banana, mango, chickoo.
Dry fruits 1 15 50 12.5 - -
Raisins, Dates, prunes.

X Fats, oil and sugars
Oil 1 11 100 - - 11
Ghee 1 11 100 - - 11
Butter 1 14 100 - - 11

Sugar 1 12.5 50 12.5 - -
Honey 1 15.6 50 12.5 - -
Jaggery 1 13 50 12.5 - -

XI Miscellaneous
Sago 1 30 100 25 - -
Arrowroot 1 30 100 25 - -
Makhana 1 30 100 22 3 -
Papad 1 in no 8 23 4 1.7 -

fp-masala and rice&pulses

Understanding Masalas for F.Y B.Sc
Remember the last time you had a great biryani, chicken tikka or paneer makhani, what was it that made the experience so mouth watering!
Was it the masala?
Every kitchen commercial or household generally has a “hatri” or masala trolley to store different masalas; this is an integral part of creating that particular cuisine.
Spices can be divided according to the following classification
Spices
Dry Ground

Single Blends Single Blends
Spices can be the seed(Cumin),Flower(Clove),Resin (Asafetida),Leaf(Mint),Bark(Cinnamon),Root(Turmeric),Fruit(Amchoor),Stigma(Saffron) etc. coming from plant sources. Other not so common categories include mineral salts like black salt, Fungus (Dagad Phool or patthar ka phool).
Some other flavorings apart from Spices but equally important can be. Acids (Nimboo ka sat or Citric Acid), Oils (Sesame oil, Mustard Oil), Essences like (Kewra or Screw pine/Rose).
Masala can be defined a blend of various ingredients including spices. It generally contains spices (e.g. coriander powder, chili powder) +Thickening agents (e.g. Khus khus, cashew paste etc.)+acidic medium (tomato, yoghurt etc.)+liquid (coconut milk, stock etc.) .Some ingredients play more than one role like tamarind gives sourness and also acts as the liquid)
The Following chart has information regarding individual Spices.





The next Step is to understand Spice blends, these blends can be dry/dry roasted/crushed/fresh/ground etc. Every chef/Cook/Household/Proprietor has their own approach to these blends, these blends are highly guarded secrets in some cases .some blends are preparation specific Like Chana Masala, Mutton Masala, and Gram Masala. Some blends are cuisine /region/community specific like Malwani Masala, Chettinad Masala, Goda Masala, Parsi dhansak masala etc.







RICE

Rice is the seed of a monocot plant Oryza sativa. As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in East, South, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, Latin America, and the West Indies. It is the grain with the second highest worldwide production, after maize ("corn").
[1] Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption, rice is probably the most important grain with regards to human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one fifth of the calories consumed worldwide by the human species.
[2]A traditional food plant in Africa, rice has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable land care.
[3]Rice is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can produce a crop for up to 30 years.
[4]The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and soil fertility. The grass has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm long and 2–2.5 cm broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm long. The edible seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm long and 2–3 mm thick.

Types of Rice.

1. Paddy Rice - Rice still in its original state with no further
Treatment after threshing.
2. Brown Rice - (Husked Rice) Rice with the outer husk
Removed having a characteristic beige color.
3. White Rice - Brown rice from which all the germ is
Removed by passing through machines that rasp the grain. It is also called unpolished rice.
4. Polished Rice - White rice that has been passed through
Machines that remove any flour still adhering to the grain.
5. Glaze Rice - Polished rice covered with a fine layer of
French chalk and suspended in glucose,
Specially processed to give a shine.
6. Steamed Rice - Paddy rice that is cleaned, soaked in hot
Water, steamed at low pressure, de-husked & blanched.
7. Pre-cooked Rice - Rice that has been husked, soaked, boiled for
1 – 3 minutes. And dried at a high temperature.
8. Camolino Rice - Polished and lightly coated with oil.
9. Puffed Rice - In India it is roasted and fried on hot sand.

10. Wild Rice - The seed of an aquatic grass, related to the
Rice plant, it grows one by one up the stalks and resembles little black sticks. It is very expensive.
11. Basmati Rice - Indian rice with long grains, with a
Distinctive flavor. Old basmati rice is the most prized and is rarely available.
12. Sticky Rice - Round grain rice which has a very high starch
Content. Rarely available, it is most ideal for Chinese cooking.
13. Rice Flakes - Rice that is steamed, husked & flattened into
Flakes, it is eaten for breakfast with milk & sugar.
Or as a savory preparation (poha)

Rice is also used to make a variety of alcoholic drinks. :-
CHOUM - In Vietnam
SAMAV - In Malaysia
SAKE - In Japan
CHAO XING - In China


Nutrition: Rice has a very high Calorific value (350 cal, per 100 g. in whole rice & 120 cal. Per 100 g. in balanced rice). It is very rich in digestible starch (77 %) and also in vitamins B1, B2 and minerals.

Cooking of Rice

A) In Water:
1. Rice is put into the vessel with twice the amount of water, brought to a boil, and cooked till the water is absorbed.
2. Alternatively it can be poured into a vessel of boiling water, brought to a boil, cooked and drained off.

B) In Stock -In this method the rice is lightly fried in hot oil and stock is added to it. It is then cooked till the Rice is soft and all the stock has been absorbed.

C) In Milk : Rice is normally cooked in milk for making desserts. Short
Grained rice is ideal for this type of cooking because the
Grains stick together thus giving thickening properties to
The dish.










PULSES /LEGUMES/BEANS

A pulse is an annual leguminous crop yielding from one to twelve grains or seeds of variable size, shape, and color within a pod. Pulses are used for food and animal feed. The term "pulse", as used by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), is reserved for crops harvested solely for the dry grain. This excludes green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable crops. Also excluded are crops that are mainly grown for oil extraction (oilseeds like soybeans and peanuts), and crops which are used exclusively for sowing (clovers, alfalfa). However, many of the varieties so classified and given below are also used as vegetables, with their beans in pods while young cooked in whole cuisines and sold for the purpose; for example black eyed beans, lima beans and Toor or pigeon peas are thus eaten as fresh green beans cooked as part of a meal. Pulses are important food crops due to their high protein and essential amino acid content. Like many leguminous crops, pulses play a key role in crop rotation due to their ability to fix nitrogen.

Protein content

Pulses are 20 to 25% protein by weight, which is double the protein content of wheat and three times that of rice. For this reason, pulses are called "vegetarian's meat". While pulses are generally high in protein, and the digestibility of that protein is also high, they often are relatively poor in the essential amino acid methionine, although Indian cuisine includes sesame seeds, which contain high levels of methionine. Grains (which are they deficient in lysine) are commonly consumed along with pulses to form a complete protein diet.


Health

Pulses have significant nutritional and health advantages for consumers
[1] They are the most important dietary predictor of survival in older people of different ethnicities
[2] And in the Seven Countries Study, legume consumption was highly correlated with a reduced mortality from coronary heart disease.








Examples




1. Dry beans
* Kidney bean, haricot bean, pinto bean, navy bean
* Lima bean, butter bean
* Azuki bean, adzuki bean
* Mung bean, golden gram, green gram
* Black gram, Urad
* Scarlet runner bean
* Ricebean
* Moth bean
* Tepary bean
2. Dry broad beans
* Horse bean
* Broad bean
* Field bean
3. Dry peas
* Garden pea
* Protein pea
4. Chickpea, Garbanzo, Bengal gram
5. Dry cowpea, Black-eyed pea, blackeye bean
6. Pigeon pea, Arhar /Toor, cajan pea, congo bean
7. Lentil
8. Bambara groundnut, earth pea
9. Vetch, common vetch
10. Lupins
11. Minor pulses include:
* Lablab, hyacinth bean
* Jack bean , sword bean
* Winged bean
* Velvet bean, cowitch
* Yam bean


Sprouts
Edible Sprouts are germinated plant seeds which are edible. They are usually produced by soaking the seeds at regular intervals over a 1-4 day interval. Sprouts are believed to be highly nutritious and rich in enzymes which promote good health.

Convenience: - They can be easily grown anywhere.
Offers a variation: - With their nutty flavor and crisp texture. Sprouts are simply a nice change from vegetable.






Cooking of Pulses and legumes. : Since pulses and legumes are very low in moisture content they have to be soaked in water. It’s advisable to soak pulses and boil them in the same water in which soaked as some nutrients may have bleached out to water.
Besides boiling pulses are roasted, fried and ground to make flour and then be used for various purposes.


Uses of Pulses

1. As dals - the basic course of Indian cookery.
2. As soups - e.g. Mulligatawny
3. Providing mutual supplementation of amino acids in Khicdi
4. As flour in missi roti, Besani roti.
5. As basic ingredient for idlis, uttapas and chillas.
6. As base ingredient or coating as in pakodas, wadas of various kinds.
7. As base for desserts like laddoos, mobanthal, payasam, Boondi.
8. As snacks like fried dal, sev, ganthias
9. Base ingredients for papads.
10. As stuffing as in dal kachories, puran polies, stuffed tikkis.
11. In chats and sprouted salads.